Activation of the inflammatory response can be observed in almost all retinal diseases. The retina becomes weak and thin, the ability to sense light is impaired, and the patient suffers varying degrees of visual loss. Optic ganglion cells are impaired, and their number decreases.
Proinflammatory factors in the retina are mainly produced and released by activated microglia, predominantly tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin (IL)-1β, as well as IL-3, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12, and IL-18. Moreover, inflammation is another common trigger for retinal degeneration. ROS are induced in these diseases, leading to retinal degeneration. Age-related macular degeneration (AMD), diabetic retinopathy (DR), and glaucoma are eye diseases that can lead to vision loss. Unreduced ROS attack retinal cells, creating a pathological environment in the eye. However, imbalances in oxidation and antioxidation caused by various factors, such as genetic mutations, ageing, and poor lifestyle, can lead to decreased production of reducing agents and a considerable accumulation of ROS. Here, the oxidative and antioxidant reactions are in balance. In a healthy eye, a large quantity of antioxidants depletes ROS and prevents them from damaging retinal cells. Rapid energy consumption generates an abundance of reactive oxygen species (ROS), creating a localized, highly oxidative microenvironment.
The retina is one of the body's most energy- and oxygen-intensive tissues. Astrocytes and Müller cells are involved in forming the blood‒retinal barrier (BRB), while microglia, when activated, can phagocytose cellular debris, performing a macrophage-like function. In the retina, cells that perform immune-like functions include microglia, astrocytes, and Müller cells. The retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) sits between the choroid and photoreceptors, transmitting nutrients to photoreceptors and RGCs. The core cells that sense and transduce light signals are photoreceptors and retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). The retina is the only nerve tissue in the body that senses and transduces light signals and has a delicate anatomical structure and complex physiological environment.
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